Special Note:  Check out the home page for our plans for Prairie Appreciation Month: April 15th-May 15th.

Scot’s Broom Legacy Prairies, Post by Adam Martin, images as attributed.

Adam was part of the transition team that joined Ecostudies in 2020 after working on the South Sound Prairies since 2011. His work involves collaborative planning and implementation of restoration activities and developing research and monitoring projects to support the restoration and conservation of rare and federally-listed species in prairie and oak habitats in both South and North Puget Sound. He is currently in his candidacy in the Master of Environmental Studies program at The Evergreen State College. He is focusing on topics in conservation biogeography. His thesis work involves assessing the risks to native plant communities on small islands in the San Juan Islands.

Scot’s Broom Legacy Prairies

Illustration of Scot’s broom (Cytisus scoparius) from Köhler’s Medicinal Plants (1887)

Genesta [Scot’s broom] hath that name of bytterness for it is full of bytter to mannes taste. And is a shrub that growyth in a place that is forsaken, stony and untylthed. Presence thereof is witnesse that the ground is bareyne and drye that it groweth in. And hath many braunches knotty and hard. Grene in winter and yelowe floures in somer thyche (the which) wrapped with hevy (heavy) smell and bitter sauer (savour). And ben, netheles, moost of vertue.’ – A description of Scot’s broom (Cytisis scoparius) in the 1618 London Pharmacopoeia, quoted in A Modern Herbal by Margaret Grieve

Like the remaining meadow habitats in the British isles and Ireland, the first European settlers to the South Sound region likely considered the remaining upland prairie habitats we have today, at places like West Rocky, Mima Mounds, and Glacial Heritage as forsaken, stony and barren ground not fit for tilling. While such a dismal designation ended up being a blessing in disguise for the myriad of prairie species that remain, prairie species continue to be at risk from invasive and non-native species that are also well adapted to the same ‘ bareyne and drye’ habitats.

Remnant native prairie at Glacial Heritage that escaped invasion from Scot’s broom.

Most of our common prairie weeds, such as Scot’s broom (Cytisus scoparius), sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella), ox-eye daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare), Colonial bent-grass (Agrostis capillaris) Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus), sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), early hair-grass (Aira praecox) and shepard’s cress (Teesdalia nudicaulis) are native to the endangered grassland and meadow habitats of Britian and Ireland. Since our prairies and climate are so like the meadow habitats in the British Isles and Ireland, these weed species had a readily suitable environment to establish in. For example, shepard’s cress is considered Near Threatened in England where it grows in dry grasslands dominated by sheep’s fescue (Festuca ovina), a bunchgrass very similar in form and life history to our Roemer’s fescue (Festuca roemeri).

A degraded South Sound prairie or an intact English meadow? In the UK and Ireland, the suite of our South Sound Prairie weeds comprise a community of threatened meadow species. See more at widlifetrusts.org. Image source wildlifetrust.org.

The re-creation of European meadow ecosystems in a different part of the globe represents a very fascinating biogeographic story, and presents us with interesting conundrums like what to do when ‘our’ weeds are another’s rare ecosystem (a fact not lost on the late Arthur Kruckeberg). But, more importantly, the addition of so many European meadow species has caused the loss of much our own unique biodiversity, and re-establishing native prairie is the cornerstone of so much of the work we do on the prairies.

If there is one prairie weed species to rule them all, it would be Scot’s broom, which for decades spread across the South Sound prairies, changing our open grasslands to a thick shrubland.

Me standing in a dense thicket of Scot’s broom at Mazama Meadows while doing one of the first botanical surveys of the site.

Since the 1990’s, many of us have spent many days of sweat and tears cutting, spraying, mowing, pulling, and burning Scot’s broom. There is no greater testament to the tenacity of dedicated restoration than at Glacial Heritage Preserve. At Glacial Heritage folks have spent years of effort to liberate much of the prairie from the thumb of Scot’s broom’s shadow.

The dramatic change of the prairie habitat at Glacial Heritage Preserve between 1990 and 2017. The dark gray splotches in the 1990 photo are Scot’s broom patches, which are completely absent by 2018.

However, Scot’s broom doesn’t just change prairies by creating shrubland, it also alters the soil by fixing nitrogen and adding woody material into the soil environment. These potential changes to the soil can cause another conundrum – what do we do if Scot’s broom changes prairies even after we remove it? These ‘legacy’ soils could either be maladaptive for our native prairie species, or the other associated European weeds that co-evolved with Scot’s broom in European meadows may be better competitors. For example, species like sheep sorrel, hairy cat’s ear, ox-eye daisy, Yorkshire fog, and sweet vernal grass all readily grow under even the oldest growth Scot’s broom. If these species were able to produce extensive seedbanks under Scot’s broom while outcompeting other native species, they could be equally tenacious and persistent even once we remove Scot’s broom and seed in native prairie species.

Exploring these questions was the basis for a research question I’ve explored for several years. Using the above 1990 map, I set up a natural experiment to see if plant communities that formed under scot’s broom remained different from uninvaded communities even after many years since Scot’s broom removal. What I found was disheartening. Scot’s broom legacy areas were completely stubborn and resistant to our restoration actions, even in prairie locations where we have extensively sown and plugged native prairie species and actively controlled Scot’s broom and other weeds with mowing, fire, and herbicide. Other prairie weeds were little impacted by the presence of Scot’s broom, as we’d expect if they co-evolved in similar habitats in Europe. This was even the case for several cosmopolitan native prairie species that are also native to Europe such as yarrow (Achillea millefolium), self heal (Prunella vulgare) and bluebells (Campanula rotundifolia). In contrast, our regionally endemic prairie species such as white-topped aster (Sericocarpus rigidus) failed to persist or become re-established in legacy soils. For example, western buttercup (Ranunculus occidentalis) growing in legacy soils flower less often, produce fewer fruits, and are shorter in stature than buttercup growing in native prairie. These little studies highlight the big reality that restoration is hard, and being proactive in controlling weeds can be vitally important, because sometimes the consequences are irreversible or nearly so. While we may now have wonderful examples of meadowscapes that would make the characters from a Jane Austen novel blush, we may have lost a unique expression of what makes the South Sound landscape so unique. For a longer presentation on this topic see this talk given at the 2020 Scotch broom symposium.

A sea of hairy cat’s ear, one of the dominant species in prairies that have a legacy of Scot’s broom invasion.

Spring at Violet Prairie Seed Farm, Post and Photos by Ruth Mares

Ruth (they/them) joined the Center for Natural Lands Management’s Nursery Program in 2018 as a farm crew member. Originally from rural Maine, Ruth moved to Olympia, WA in 2011 to pursue a degree in Ecology from The Evergreen State College. They initially fell in love with the temperate rainforests and dramatic coastal shores, but it was seeing the prairies of Thurston County in full wildflower bloom that inspired them to pursue conservation work in the South Puget Sound region

Spring at Violet Prairie Seed Farm

Somehow, it has been an entire year since the world first became entangled with COVID- 19. This major event has caused many shifts globally, trickling all the way down to the prairies of Western Washington, and to the Violet Prairie Native Plant Nursery. Taking precautions early, beginning in March of 2020, we have become accustomed to the shift to distanced work (which again, is nothing new to us!)

Clouds break to let some sun down onto Violet Prairie seed farm as Andy Hopwood walks to the barn. Photo by Ruth Mares.

A slow and steady slog through the winter finally brought us to the first hints of Spring, with some early bloomers teasing us as early as mid February.

Collinsia parviflora blooming, Photo by Ruth Mares.

Winter was not through with us though, and the heavy snowfall in the Puget Sound region left us with severe damage to our drying sheds. Although this will shift some of our energy from the fields to reconstruction this Spring, our steadfast staff and seasonal crew are determined to get new sheds up and press on with our mission. It is amazing what this small team has been able to withstand and accomplish, and though the winter gave us some beautiful glamour shots of frosty mornings, we are ready to wave goodbye to the colder months.

Frozen Collomia grandiflora, Photo by Ruth Mares.

Frosty Upper Violet Prairie, Photo by Ruth Mares.

 With the vernal equinox having just passed, we are feeling the full excitement of Spring! We’ve almost finished the sowing of our annuals, namely Microsteris gracilis, Collomia grandiflora, and Plectritis congesta. We’ll expect to see these freshly seeded beds begin to emerge in the coming weeks, and we are already seeing the adorable new growth and cotyledons of most of our lupines!

Lupinus oreganus var. kinkaidii cotyledons, Photo by Anika Goldner.

Though the weather is warming up, the fields have still been a bit too moist to drive the tractors on – we want to avoid compaction in our tractor wells! – but we have been able to sneak in a bit of tilling here and there in preparation for our Spring planting. We hope to get our plugs in the ground within the next couple of weeks, and if the rains cooperate with us we’ll be in great shape. We have a fair amount of fresh irrigation repair to get to as well – another thing to add to the long list of Spring to-dos! Luckily, we completed our raised bed repairs and construction over at Shotwell’s Landing Preserve in October, including a new location for our Allium amplectens bulbs that we suspect were experiencing predation from rodents.

Farm crew members Emily LePlante and Anika Goldner installing hardware cloth at the bottom of a reconstructed raised bed, Photo by Ruth Mares.

2020 brought what seemed like an endless onslaught of hurdles for this team, but it has been amazing to see staff and crew persist, with a seemingly unshakable commitment to the cause of conservation and tending to these wonderful plants. We enter this new year ready for whatever may come – be it the continuation of this pandemic, wildfires or heavy snow – knowing that we not only have the support of each other as a solid nursery team, but the unconditional love of our canine companion, Finn Hopwood!

Finn supervising the installation of experimental use of burlap sacks as temporary weed suppression in some of our tarped beds. Photo by Ruth Mares.

We are excited for the season to come, and welcome folks to visit the farm through tours that are being arranged for Prairie Appreciation Month!

Please visit our website, http://cnlm.org/native-seed-nursery/ to see updated lists of our current seed availability, and read a bit more about the nursery’s role in the restoration of prairies in Western Washington.

Spring Colors, Butterflies, and Nectar at Mima Mounds Natural Area Preserve, Post by David Wilderman, photos as noted.

David is the program ecologist for the Natural Areas Program at the Washington Department of Natural Resources. He works on conservation, restoration, and monitoring of Natural Area Preserves and Natural Resources Conservation Areas around the state.

Spring Colors, Butterflies, and Nectar at Mima Mounds Natural Area Preserve

Early spring is perhaps my favorite time on the Mima Mounds Natural Area Preserve, when the heady days of full-on springtime are just visible on the horizon but not quite here. The earliest of spring blooms are just beginning to show as buds or fresh flowers that stand out against the background of that bright, young green that is only there for a short time before it becomes more lush and mature. On my latest visit to Mima Mounds in mid-March, the early plants were still awakening from winter and not yet flowering – still part of that bright green background. But within a few weeks, that will rapidly change. Henderson’s shooting star, western buttercup, spring-gold, western saxifrage, and wild strawberries will start to light up the landscape with magenta, yellow, and white, followed by the camas bloom that usually starts in late April. If you’re lucky enough to catch some of these together, in profusion, it can be quite a sight!

Shooting Star, Photo by Aaron Barna

Camas and Spring Gold after a Prescribed Burn, Photo by David Wilderman

On our occasional bluebird days this time of year, or even during a brief sun-break on an otherwise rainy day, bumblebees and other insects can be seen getting their first taste of prairie pollen and nectar. It’s always amazing to me how much the prairie can suddenly come alive during a brief break in the clouds, rain, and wind. One of the other early bloomers, though not strictly a prairie plant, is kinnikinnick – a sprawling, low-growing woody plant that often forms mat-like patches. If you’re lucky, you might spy a small, brown butterfly fluttering around these patches — the Hoary Elfin, distinguished by the frosty coloring (“hoary”) on the outer portion of its wings. This butterfly, while not the most striking to look at, is interesting in its specialized life history. It essentially lives out its entire lifespan within patches of kinnikinnick – perhaps even within a single patch. Adults nectar on the flowers and lay their eggs on the season’s fresh new leaves, which the larvae then feed on after hatching a week or so later. Mima Mounds has one of the larger known populations of Hoary Elfins, one of a number of butterfly species found in our prairies that have declined significantly from their historic numbers. The trails near the interpretive building on the preserve are a good place to keep your eye out for these little lepidopterans, although it takes a sharp eye as they are pretty cryptic.

Kinnikinnic Flowers and Fruit, Photo by Rod Gilbert

Hoary Elfin Butterfly on Kinnickinnick, Photo by David Wilderman

As with most of our remaining South Sound prairies, rare or declining butterflies like the hoary elfin are important conservation features and the focus of many management efforts at Mima Mounds. In addition to the hoary elfin, Mima Mounds harbors important populations of several such species including a few that won’t be seen for a few months – the Great Spangled Fritillary, Zerene Fritillary, and Oregon Branded Skipper. Adults of these species fly during high summer – July and August – with the females seeking out violets (the Fritillaries) and grasses (the Skipper) on which to lay their eggs.

Early Blue Violet, photo by David Wilderman

Nectar can provide an important energy boost during this time, helping extend their lifespan and perhaps improving their reproductive capacity. However, nectar tends to be in short supply during mid to late summer on the prairies, as most of our native wildflowers have their peak bloom in the spring. So what do these butterflies nectar on? Among the native plants they might search out are white-top aster (a rare plant limited to Pacific NW prairies), spreading dogbane, showy daisy, and pearly everlasting, although these are often sparse, only overlap with the early part of their flight season, or do not flower abundantly on the prairies. Most often, we find them nectaring on the flowers of weedy, non-native plants like tansy ragwort and Canada thistle. This obviously presents a bit of a conundrum for managing these sites, requiring a balance between controlling these species to meet legal requirements and keep them from spreading within the prairies – and keeping enough of them around to help supply nectar to hungry summer butterflies.

Oregon Branded Skipper on Tansy Ragwort, photo by Ann Potter

Zerene Fritillary on Tansy Ragwort, photo by David Wilderman

One of the efforts we’ve been focusing on recently at Mima Mounds is trying to diversify and boost populations of native late-season nectar plants, with the hope of eventually “weaning” the butterflies off of the non-native species. Mostly this is done by including these plants in our seeding and planting mixes after prescribed burning; but we’ve also begun adding them to smaller, targeted areas on the prairie / forest edge in hopes that some shading will help the flowers persist even longer into the season. Last fall, for instance, we planted and seeded a number of areas along the forest edges with pearly everlasting, spreading dogbane, and a native thistle (short-styled thistle) to see if we can establish more of these plants on the site — and if the butterflies will in fact use them rather than the non-natives. So, if you’re out on the Mima Mounds on a warm summer morning, or even a hot afternoon in July or August, watch for butterflies and see what plants they might be drinking nectar from. Hopefully, it’s one of our natives!

Spreading Dogbane, Photo by David Wilderman

If and when you do visit, be sure to check out the signs and illustrations at the interpretive building, aka “the mushroom” or “the concrete mound” (the latter was in fact the idea behind the design). They highlight various aspects of the site, including plant and animal species, prairie ecology, mound-origin theories (that’s a long story of its own), and some of the uses and management of prairies that has taken place for centuries, if not thousands of years. And don’t forget your Discover Pass for parking!

Oaks on the Prairies, Post by Deborah Naslund, Photos as attributed.

Deb Naslund is one of the long time volunteers on the prairies and has been very active in Prairie Appreciation Day since she started volunteering.  She is also extremely active in the Washington Native Plant Society.

Oaks on the Prairies

Everyone has a favorite station at Prairie Appreciation Day. One of my favorites is “Oaks on the Prairies” a.k.a. the “Oak Gall Ink Station”. I’ve enjoyed staffing this station for several years. I love to see young and old alike try their hand at writing and drawing with the oak gall ink while learning more about oaks.

Why do we talk about oaks at a celebration of prairies? Oak woodlands are often associated with Puget Sound Prairies, thriving on the same glacial outwash soils. Quercus garryana, commonly called Oregon white oak or Garry oak, is our only native oak in Washington. Just like many prairie species, it is well adapted to gravelly dry soils and frequent, low intensity fires. As a Garry oak ages, its bark thickens, making the trees more fire resistant than the conifers that may be invading their stands. Garry oaks also have the ability to vigorously sprout from the root crown if the tree is severely damaged. You can find these stately oaks, some perhaps over 300 years old, growing in association with a species-rich community of native grasses and wildflowers.

Garry Oaks, Photo by Deb Naslund

Sadly, these lovely woodlands are disappearing from the landscape due to land development and Douglas fir encroachment among other threats. They are ranked as “Critically Imperiled” by the Washington Natural Heritage Program (https://www.dnr.wa.gov/publications/amp_nh_conservation_status.pdf ). But there are many efforts underway to restore and protect these threatened ecosystems. For more information and to learn how you can help, visit http://www.southsoundprairies.org/. For a deep dive into the science of prairie-oak conservation and species recovery efforts in our area, see: https://cascadiaprairieoak.org/

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What are oak galls? You can often find Garry oaks that are harboring what look like round, pithy balls on their twigs or leaves. These are oak galls. The tree grows a gall in response to the larvae of several different species of oak gall wasps. One of the main wasps on Garry oaks is the California oak gall wasp (Andricus californicus), which forms large, persistent, apple-like galls on twigs. The galls develop when the wasp pierces the tree’s flesh and lays its eggs. Growing the gall doesn’t hurt the tree, but does provide a home for the wasp larvae.

The galls are green when they form, but once the wasp larvae mature and leave, the galls dry up and turn brown. You can often find oak galls on the ground around mature oak trees. Look under oaks in your neighborhood or in a local park.

Oak Gall

What is oak gall ink? Oak gall ink has been used for centuries. It uses the chemical reaction between the tannic acid in the oak gall and iron oxide, from a rusty nail or other source, to produce a black pigment. Adding a binder, such as gum arabic, creates an ink that can be used with quill, reed or steel dipped pens. The permanence and water-resistance of this type of ink made it the standard writing ink in Europe for over 1,400 years. The Declaration of Independence, Magna Carta and other important documents were written using gall ink. Also, according to recent research, traces of gall ink have been found on the Dead Sea scrolls.

You can make oak gall ink at home with those oak galls you found on the ground. Here’s the recipe:

Oak Gall Ink Recipe

1. Put ½ cup of crushed oak galls in a glass jar, add a cup of water and let the mixture sit for a week or two or even a month.
2. Add a few steel nails (not galvanized) to the mixture and let sit for another week or two. Old rusty nails work best.
3. After a good, dense ink has developed, filter off the oak galls. The nails can be left in to add further density.
4. Add one tablespoon of gum arabic (available at art or craft stores) to thicken the ink.
5. When used, the ink writes in gray, but becomes black when it has dried.

Give it a try and see what you can create. Note that this ink works with dip pens; it is not suitable for fountain pens. And, be careful as this ink was prized for its permanence!

Poster created with oak gall ink by participants to Prairie Appreciation Day 2019. Photo by Dennis Plank

Casey Risley of Lewis County Noxious Weed Control Provided Information on this Upcoming Symposium

We also have the information available on our website.

https://lewiscountywa.gov/departments/weed-control/education-opportunities/2021-lewis-county-invasive-pests-workshop/

The direct link to register is https://zoom.us/meeting/register/tJ0sc-igrjooHd0v4wF9wK99ab0wlBJW-GLM

Hiding in Plain Sight, Invasive Weeds in Prairie Habitats, Post by Casey Risley, photos as indicated.

Casey Risley is a lover of moss, mud, rain, and all things Pacific Northwest. After leaving Washington to pursue a Master’s in Fish & Wildlife Ecology from the University of Maine, she affirmed her love of her home state and has worked in biological sciences and natural resources since 2004. She currently works for Lewis County Noxious Weed Control, focusing on outreach and education.

Hiding in Plain Sight, Invasive Weeds in Prairie Habitats

Much like the weeds we wage war upon, Lewis County Noxious Weed Control lies dormant in the winter months. We wait and we long for the warmth of spring to signal to us that it is again time to don the orange vests, work gloves, and hiking boots; and return to the outdoors to seek out and destroy the noxious weeds that threaten our wild spaces. Prairies and native grasslands are unique, not only in their beauty and their power to evoke wanderlust, but also in the challenges that they pose in invasive and noxious weed prevention, detection, and treatment.

Many exotic species are so common and widespread that we tend to think of them as belonging. We expect prairies to be full of grasses and splendid colors of wildflowers. Rarely does the eye pick out that one purple flower that does not fit in, or that one grass that doesn’t belong. Some plants, like foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), are not native, but they are widely distributed and we’re accustomed to seeing them. Their tall stalks of purple flowers complement the other wildflowers, and luckily, they are relatively benign. Other nonnatives, however, do not play as nicely.

In a prairie habitat, noxious weeds can often go unnoticed for multiple years, because of the ease with which they blend in. By the time that new populations are identified, multiple plants are well established and a healthy seed bank is already set in the soil. An established noxious weed population can take multiple years of repeated treatments for successful eradication. Sometimes, however, the population is too large, and eradication is no longer feasible. The best control measure then becomes containment, to prevent the population from spreading.

Meadow of orange hawkweed and wild carrot. Courtesy of WSNWCB

The good news in all this is that one way you can help out in the war against noxious weeds is to dally in the wildflowers a little longer. Not all wildflowers belong, and there are a few that are really easy to identify if you know what to look for.

Orange hawkweed (Hieracium aurantiacum) looks like an orange dandelion, but dandelions aren’t supposed to be orange! Also misidentified as Indian paintbrush because of its orange and red coloring, orange hawkweed is a Class B Noxious Weed, noted for its aggressive behavior in pastures, rangelands, and meadows. Once established, the unpalatable orange hawkweed will outcompete valuable forage for grazers.

Orange hawkweed, often overlooked and misidentified as Indian paint brush, or orange dandelion. Courtesy of WSNWCB

Sulfur cinquefoil (Potentilla recta) is often misidentified as wild strawberry or even buttercup due to its pale yellow, 5 petal flowers. However, sulfur cinquefoil is a Class B noxious weed and is a strong competitor with native grasses that will form dense monocultures. It has a high tannin content, making it unpalatable to grazing wildlife and livestock. The leaves are distinct, in that they are palmate, rough and hairy, with toothed margins. The leaves will often be folded up toward the stem, rather than lying flat.

Figure 3a

Figures 3a & 3b. Sulfur cinquefoil has a simple, creamy yellow, 5 petal flower with hairy palmate leaves that fold up toward the stem. This noxious weed species is often mistaken as a wild strawberry, or buttercup. Courtesy of WSNWCB

There are no native snapdragons in the Pacific Northwest. Should you spot yellow snapdragons in a prairie, grassland, or field you’ve most likely stumbled across Dalmatian toadflax (Linaria dalmatica ssp. Dalmatica) or yellow toadflax (Linaria vulgaris), both Class B noxious weeds in Washington. The toadflax species are a little happier growing east of the Cascades, but they are known to occur on the west side as well, and they are difficult to control once established. The characteristic snapdragon flower is the most identifiable feature of this weed. As with the other noxious weeds mentioned, the toadflaxes will form dense monocultures, diminishing available forage in prairies and grasslands.

Figure 4a, Dalmatian Toadflax

Figures 4a & 4b. No snapdragon species are native to the PNW. Dalmatian toadflax and Yellow toadflax are both noxious weeds in Washington State. Courtesy of WSNWCB

False brome (Brachypodium sylvaticum) is a Class A noxious weed in Washington and is one of the more difficult species to identify in the field because it look like a “grass”. False brome is not yet widely documented in Washington State, but because of its cryptic appearance, there is significant threat of this invasive becoming wide spread. It is a perennial, loosely tufted looking grass with upright stems. Soft long hairs are present and noticeable on the leaves. The flowers will droop or nod in a characteristic manner. Plants often have a distinctive lime-green coloration that persists much of the year.

Figure 5a, False Brome

Figures 5a &5b. False brome is more difficult to identify. Note the soft and long hairs on the stem and leaf, and the general droopy appearance of the grass species. Courtesy of WSNWCB

Of course, there are many more potential noxious weed invaders that you might encounter while on your adventure. Our office has had some positive experience using the iNaturalist app for help in making identifications. All County Noxious Weed Boards/Districts are also happy to assist in weed identification. Our offices can, and often do, ID live or dried specimens, however, high quality photographs are our preference. We would rather not have native or endemic plants damaged or removed by accident.

Figure 6. iNaturalist app for help in identifying weed species in the field

If you’ve positively identified a noxious or invasive species (plant, insect, or any other invasive) you can contact your County Noxious Weed Control Board, or you can report the sighting directly to Washington Invasive Species Council using their free WA Invasives app, and the information will be routed to the appropriate governmental agency.

Figure 7. WA Invasives app enables the user to report sightings of invasive species in Washington State.

How these noxious weed species are transported is also of concern. As ecotourism increases in the Pacific Northwest, invasive species are being transported at increasingly high rates by hikers, boaters, birders, bikers, campers, and even weed control crews themselves. Seeds of invasive plants species are easily spread by being trapped in the treads of boots, loosely attached to clothing, or caught in your four legged companion’s fur. Brush your boots, clothing, and pup’s fur free of any seeds BEFORE as well as AFTER each outdoor activity to keep the seeds from being moved from one outdoor space to another. Recreational gear such as bike tire treads, boat propellers and trailers, tents, and kayaks should also be inspected and cleaned of any debris before and after each use. Firewood should be sourced locally. Hay and grass feed for horses should be certified weed free. Washington State and County offices are partners in the Play.Clean.Go. Campaign, whose mission is to promote advocacy, awareness, and partnership with environmentalists and recreationalists to prevent the spread of invasive species.

Figure 8. Weed seed can hitch a ride in boot treads or on your pup’s fur. Be sure to clean your boots, clothing, gear, and pup’s fur BEFORE as well as AFTER recreating to prevent spreading invasive species. Courtesy of Play.Clean.Go.

For more information about noxious weeds in Washington State, please visit Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board at https://www.nwcb.wa.gov/

Lewis County Noxious Weed Control can be contacted via https://lewiscountywa.gov/departments/weed-control/

Washington Invasive Species Council and to download the WA Invasives app https://invasivespecies.wa.gov/

To learn more about the Play.Clean.Go. Campaign or to join as a partner, visit https://www.playcleango.org/help-stop-invasive-species-with-playcleango

Puget Sound Prairie Soils, Post by Elizabeth Carp and images as noted.

Lizzie Carp moved to the northwest to work as a wildland firefighter, but after working in two communities devastated by heavy metal soil contamination due to mining, she decided to earn a master’s degree in soil remediation. She now works as a soil scientist for USDA-NRCS, where she is currently mapping the soils of Olympic National Park.

Puget Sound Prairie Soils

The Puget Sound prairies are a unique ecosystem supported by unique soils. Droughty and nutrient-poor, these soils provide a leaner existence for plants than prairie soils in other parts of the country, but that is in part what gives them their unique ecology. This post will describe the origins of these soils and why they matter.

The formation of Puget Sound prairie soils began about 15,000 years ago with the retreat of the Vashon ice sheet, a massive glacier that formed the Puget Trough and terminated in southern Thurston County, Washington. As the glacier melted, it left scattered deposits of sand and water-rounded gravel throughout Puget Sound. Since then, this glacial outwash has weathered to form today’s prairie soils.

A recently formed outwash plain. (http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/07/continental-glacier-deposition.html)

Five factors influence how a soil develops and behaves: parent material, climate, organisms, relief, and time. Parent material is the geologic origin of the material that weathers into soil. Glacial outwash is a parent material that consists of larger, heavier mineral particles, like sand and gravel, that were deposited by the torrent of meltwater, which carried off the lighter silt and clay. This coarse texture gives Puget Sound prairie soils their low water- and nutrient-holding capacity.

Spanaway, a Puget Sound prairie soil that formed in outwash. Note the water-rounded gravel. Photo by Dan Ufnar, NRCS.

Climate influences what can grow in the soil, the rate of microbial processes like decomposition, and the mineral content of soils. Western Washington’s prolific rainfall washes away nutrients and minerals that balance pH, creating acidic and nutrient-poor prairie soils.

Organisms add, alter, and move materials in the soil. Microbes decompose organic matter and weather minerals. On the Puget Sound prairies, humans historically used controlled burns, which added charcoal to the soil, to maintain grassland cover, such as camas, and prevent forest encroachment. Due to their abundance of fine roots, grasses contribute large quantities of organic matter to the upper parts of prairie soils, giving them characteristically thick, dark surface layers. Roots host fungi that exude a sticky substance called glomalin, which strengthens soil aggregates, improving aeration and water infiltration.

Roots add organic matter and improve soil structure. (https://gardenerspath.com/how-to/composting/benefits-soil-inoculants/)

Relief, or topography, is the physical shape of the landscape: its slope, aspect, and tendency to collect or shed water and sediment. Soils on warmer and drier south-facing slopes support different vegetation than those on north-facing slopes, which tend to have more moisture. Soils that form on convex, erosive surfaces, such as the shoulder of a hill, are shallower than soils at the bottom of a slope, where they accumulate thicker surface layers. Soils tend to be drier on sloping or convex surfaces, which shed water. Spana, a Puget Sound prairie soil found in swales and depressions, is somewhat poorly drained while Spanaway, a geographically associated soil found on flat or convex surfaces, is somewhat excessively drained.

A topographic map shows the location of different soils. (https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-topography.html)

Finally, soils need time to develop. Older soils function differently than younger ones. With time, soils undergo significant weathering by organisms and rain. Soils acidify, and their original minerals dissolve to form red clays. Leaching carries dissolved substances downward, creating discernible layers called horizons. Young soils, which may have been deposited relatively recently by a river or a glacier, contain the original minerals of their parent material and show little horizon development. At only about 15,000 years in age, Puget Sound prairie soils are considered young soils.

Left: A well-developed soil (Alfisol) with layers of clay and calcium carbonate accumulation (A.R. Aandahl, Soils of the Great Plains: Land Use, Crops and Grasses, University of Nebraska Press, 1982; https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-orders/alfisols#gallery-cbc9288e-2c8a-4900-b81e-210206d4522c–slideshow)
Right: A soil that formed in recent outwash in Alaska. (http://web.unbc.ca/~sanborn/Photo_Galleries/Yukon/Stewart-neosol-(nr-Mayo-YT)(L).jpg)

The five soil-forming factors are a useful tool for understanding soil development, but there is still a soil mystery on the Puget Sound prairies: the mima mounds. These mounds have a thick, dark, less rocky surface and sit atop very gravelly soil. From these observations, scientists have come to different conclusions on how the mounds formed, including from earthquakes, shrink-swell action, or windblown soil. The first theory has been debunked, as recent earthquakes have not been observed to form similar mounds. More recent studies claim that the mounds formed over centuries as gophers built homes above the rocky surface or as plants depleted water and nutrients from the inter-mound spaces, leading to accumulations of soil—the mounds.

Mima Mounds Natural Area Preserve. (Frank Zack/Shutterstock; https://www.treehugger.com/uncovering-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-mima-mounds-4867783)

Understanding soil is essential for understanding prairie ecology. Relationships between native plants and soils can be specific. Native plants may specialize by nutrient or moisture levels in soil, sometimes because they can live in adverse conditions, like droughtiness or low soil fertility, where others cannot.

If you would like to learn more about soils for prairie restoration, you can see which ones are mapped at your location using NRCS’s Web Soil Survey and SoilWeb. With these tools you can explore soils’ uses, limitations, and intrinsic properties that determine what kind of vegetation they can support. You can also learn how to recognize different soils in the field based on their profile description and where they occur on the landscape. When in doubt, you can always contact a soil scientist!

Web Soil Survey: https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/WebSoilSurvey.aspx

SoilWeb: https://casoilresource.lawr.ucdavis.edu/gmap/

Resolutions: a note from the editor

Now that it’s Groundhog Day and all those resolutions we made have been blissfully ignored into oblivion, maybe it’s time to sit back and look at what went wrong and make some new ones that we can actually achieve. Our regular contributor, Ivy Clark has some great ideas. And maybe we can all resolve to get out and help the planet a little more-whether it’s the prairies or the waters or the forests.

Prairies Can Have Resolutions: And Won’t Break Them, Self-help lessons from the prairie,  Post and images by Ivy Clark

Lauren ‘Ivy’ Clark studied the hybridization of Castilleja levisecta and C. hispida in restoration sites for their Masters thesis at the University of Washington before becoming a restoration technician for the Center for Natural Lands Management.

Prairies Can Have Resolutions, and Won’t Break Them:

Self-help lessons from the prairie

Yes…we’re using that January buzz word in the prairie blog, like pumpkin spice in October. And it may seem too unpredictable and scary in the world outside the gentle rolling mounds of winter-golden prairies right now, but I promise to make it fun & maybe even helpful to YOU if you keep going. Here’s a pretty sunset to remind us the world keeps turning on its axis and the sun will rise again with a new day’s hope and possibilities; or something else from a greeting card.

Recent lovely cloud streaked sunset over Glacial Heritage with smoke from neighbor’s burn pile, not ours. Photo by Ivy Clark

In restoration, we always have a goal- a determination- for our prairie sites, usually set at specific times like the start of a new grant or acquiring a new site. Probably more than the average person, we work very hard to keep these “resolutions” for our prairies; the resolution to shed those pesky extra pounds of invasive species, and gain a new six-pack of native ones.

Since you probably have already slacked or even failed on a resolution, if you took part in the custom this year, I have some helpful tips about them to go along how we do them on the prairie. You may have heard before- it’s important to set attainable goals. According to Forbs.com, about 80% of people’s New Years’ resolutions have already failed by February. So maybe our own six-pack abs should be a goal for later years. Make the baby-step goal of a healthier diet, then some added cardio activity once a week, then an attainable reduction in pounds. You get the idea. If you aim too lofty you are likely not only to fail, but also feel terrible and give up entirely, even slip back further from your goals. Our hearts are delicate organs when set on anything. Don’t set them up for failure right at the start. You won’t see us deciding to eradicate every SINGLE non-native plant from a site all in one year, while also keeping the native species- entirely unrealistic. That’s not how we roll…

A furry volunteer-greeter, dubbed “Loppers” by me. Hitchin’ a ride to work! Photo by Ivy Clark.

There is also an inverted bell curve in our motivation, which affects a resolution’s success. In the beginning, we are pumped! Our aspirations are sky high, we make a plan, and then jump in! Then the novelty wears off and it feels like work but without any visible gain yet and after the first few all-out efforts, our motivation quickly sounds like a slow trombone slide- fizzles out. If you manage to stick with it, the closer you get to the goal the higher your motivation will climb again. But it’s that valley between that kills most resolutions. Call it “motivation death valley”? It’s actually called the “middle dip of motivation”, but that seems less imaginative. And it can happen fast when we set too high a goal. The cliché personal resolution is fitness and that’s often tackled at a gym (in other years obviously). We can see the results of this motivation death directly through gym memberships, or maybe for this year online workouts enrollment. We see it year after year go up early January then drop dramatically heading into February. One month! That tells me the membership was from a too distant a goal set by a lot of people. But whether it is a goal to get in shape, save more money, volunteer more, get a raise, build a tree house, or learn to cook more than just a peanut butter and jelly sandwich (I’m looking at you sis…) the trick to successfully navigating “motivation death valley” is to not make it so extreme; set the end within reach by setting a series of smaller goals on a longer timeline. We won’t get rid of ALL the weeds on the prairies, but we can pull every visible Scotch broom within a certain unit of set acreage. Then next year, pull the neighboring unit. This taps into what’s called the “progress principle” where the perception of some forward momentum will itself give motivation. I’m sure that’s a law of motion too. It will become self-perpetuating if you can make some early progress. If only we could get abs one at a time… right? Similarly, in prairie ecology, initial achievements will lay the foundation for the end goal/ecosystem, such as clearing the trees from an area to open up new sunny land for prairie plants to expand to and that will support butterflies for the end goal of reintroducing our endangered butterflies. You definitely can’t just toss them in a forest edge and expect establishment. Shudder to think!

Cleared overgrown Douglas fir field at Cavness Ranch to expand prairie. Photo by Ivy Clark.

Just like a personal resolution, our prairie goals require a lot more work in figuring out how to achieve them than to pick which one to aim for. We can’t expect 10 more native species to show up on a site without doing anything to make it happen. This is where we set ourselves up for success, the “how”. We figure out where to get the seed from, what’s obtainable in the numbers we need for establishment, and how likely to succeed they’ll be with all the other conditions there. We figure out the many details of a budget, worker hours, timing, etc. And then we get to work and assess progress as we go.

Once you have attainable goals, and planned hard, you can keep motivated and probably won’t fail. That’s good, because failure will come with consequences, even if only as mild as feeling a little bummed and then forgetting about it. Luckily we have a lot more motivation to avoid failing than the average champagne-infused New Year’s Eve aspirational planner, and more risk. It’s like there’s a twisty rope bridge across the “motivation death valley”. It may be scary and very difficult, but we WILL get to the end. Of course life in the field is unpredictable and big things happen like major droughts, sudden budget cuts from economic shifts, or say… pandemics. But those are set-backs, not total stops. Like when your personal trainer understands you can’t do the usual work-out with a broken leg, but you can do some upper body strengthening.

Seems some underground hungry critter found a plug staged for planting overnight. Plant it anyways! Photo by Ivy Clark.

If we are all wise, we put buffers into our resolutions, both personal and for prairies. Add a few weeks of wiggle room for finishing some steps because the one thing you can rely on is unpredictability. And it’s all the better to finish early. If all goes well, then we wake up one morning with that savings account already at the set goal amount, or the four pack abs you were going for turns out to be a six pack. Can you get an eight pack, or is six the max? I’m a botanist, not a kinesiologist. Anyway, there is one special distinction that separates the personal resolution path from the prairie resolution path, and that’s the fact that us restoration workers will probably never give up even if we have a big set-back. That’s just not a viable option. We care too much and know there is so much at stake and the scope of effects reaches far beyond the area we can see or touch, probably even imagine. You don’t go into ecology work for the six-pack abs (why is that the example at the forefront of my mind??); aka- a single goal. We have an emotional commitment that most people would lack for mere resolutions. Sorry, but the prairie is bigger than your New Years’ resolution. It’s the special magnetism of such a complex interwoven world that also needs help and has so many interesting organisms in it. We’re suckers for the butterflies, the bees, and the balsamroots. That’s our rope bridge.

Here are some Prairie Resolutions I know we’re working on.

• Keep Scotch broom weed from blooming & setting seed on any sites that have it
  • Clear more acreage of it entirely and prevent from establishing where it isn’t already
• Decrease percentage of cover of other non-native plants
• Increase percentage of cover and number of native plant species
• Reintroduce endangered Taylor’s checkerspot butterflies (as caterpillars) onto select high quality site(s).
  • Give them immense love and care, talk sweetly to their delicate little furry selves
• Save more native seed in the “seed bank” for sowing on receptive fields (mainly- post prescribed burns)
• Open up more acreage to expand prairie habitat by cutting down/girdling Douglas firs at edges
  • Open up sun access for baby Garry oaks
• Plant more native plugs in future checkerspot release areas
• Study how cattle can help reduce agriculture weeds, and improve Oregon spotted frog habitat
• Increase habitat for bluebirds, and Vesper sparrows, and osprey, etc.
• Get more bats in the prairie nights
• Burn more acreage to improve and maintain high quality prairie
• Drink a beer after a hard day’s work & toast to the diverse majesty of the prairies
  • Pour a little out for our lost friends.

The boss working along Dan Kelly Ridge by Port Angeles, making room for more colonizing Taylors checkerspots, working under what would become a DOUBLE rainbow. Can you spot him? “Where’s Wal-ders” 😉 Photo by Ivy Clark.

I hope you feel more inspired to tackle any resolutions you may have, knowing that the prairies are working hard toward their goals with a whole lot of motivation. One last tip: try to think of all the other people your goal will be beneficial to like how widely beneficial prairies are. If you need to save up money for your children’s college fund (not just to reach a number for “future stuff”), then you are more likely to succeed. From us among the mounds, we’re ‘rooting for you’.

Sorry, I’ll leaf you bee…

Fun in the Field – Memories of the Christmas Bird Count, post by Mary O’Neil, photos as attributed.

Mary was born an Oregonian, but adopted Washington as her home state in her early 20’s. She lived most of her life in the Puget Sound/Seattle area relocating to Grays Harbor in 2005 when she retired from her career as a Ship Agent. After retirement she took a part time job with the Lake Quinault Lodge as an Interpretive Program Worker leading guided walks in the woods pointing out the birds, animals and plants of the Pacific Northwest Rainforest.

Mary was inspired to take up Bird Watching by her sisters, all 3 of which are avid Bird Watchers. She studied with the Rainier Chapter of Audubon of Washington and continues to expand her horizons with private study through Cornell University and its Ebird extension as well as Bird Canada’s study programs.

Mary has worked with Dan Varland of Coastal Raptors doing Beach Surveys for raptors like Peregrine Falcons and Bald Eagles. Prior to moving to Grays Harbor, she had assisted in the monthly Kent Ponds Survey which was conducted to prove to the City of Kent, Washington, that the little area surrounding these ponds was vital for the preservation of wild life, particularly birds and water fowl. It was there she enjoyed the very rare sighting of the Baikal Teal and rare to Western Washington Yellow Breasted Chat. Mary has worked with the Shorebird Festival over the last 15 years assisting in guiding various tours. Mary currently serves on the Board of the Grays Harbor Audubon Society. She is active in the Habitat Committee and is the current Field Trip Coordinator.

FUN in the FIELD

Memories of the Christmas Bird Count

The Christmas Bird Count got its start at the beginning of the last century, but I didn’t get involved until the beginning of the 21^st Century. In the fall of 2001, I took a bird identification class through the Rainier Chapter of the Audubon Society (in South King County). Our teacher kept us involved with field trips and bird surveys over the next couple of months. She invited us to join her on the Christmas Bird count although she let us know this was very serious and not normally open to beginners. A number of us tagged along behind her as she methodically counted her territory – the DesMoines, Normandy Park area of South Seattle. I remember we took a break around 2 pm at her friend’s place off of S. 200^th and DesMoines Memorial Drive. While some were sipping tea and relaxing, others of us walked a side street where we were very much entertained by a flock of drunken robins. It was fairly easy to count the robins as they would feed on the fermented berries until they would litterally fall out of the tree and flounder on the ground until their stupor wore off enough to return to the tree to continue feasting. The festive mood got a little intense when a Sharp-Shinned Hawk moved in to watch the drunken brawl as well. Our teacher was trying to get us to move along and was a bit reluctant to check out a bird I spotted which looked quite different to me. Finally at my insistence, she set her scope and zeroed in on the Townsend Warbler. It was my first, and she ended up being very delighted to add it to her CBC list.

Townsend’s Warbler, photo by Tammy Mandeville. This is her first Townsend’s Warbler and was photographed very recently at the retention ponds in Lacey, WA.

After moving to Grays Harbor, I eagerly signed up with the GHAS chapter of Audubon and have participated in their CBC ever since with minor exceptions. One year I helped with a group that covered the Westport area of the Grays Harbor Circle. We parked at roads end near the (now) Shop’n Kart Grocery. One in our group who was far more physically fit than myself and another older gentlemen offered to scout along the edge of the marshland. Meanwhile we were to check out the side streets and park area. It was a biting cold day and few birds were showing themselves. The older gentleman and myself settled in the van waiting for the third person to return. While in the van, I pointed out a distant leafless tree – Big Leaf Maple, perhaps. At the top I could see some birds flitting about. At the time, my optics were very poor and I could make out no details on these distant blips. I tried pointing them out the fellow with whom I was sharing the van. Once he caught sight of them, he said: Common Redpolls. I said, “No. We are too far away for you to be able to say what kind of birds those are.” “Common Redpolls” he said again. “You can tell by the way they are behaving.” Finally he sacrificed the security of the van to brave the icy weather. He set up his scope and, sure enough, Common Redpolls. This was my first and only time I have ever seen Common Redpolls. When the third person in our party returned, he was very cold but very excited about finding one of the rarest birds of that CBC, a Harris Sparrow.

The rag-tag crew is me and my sisters and a nephew: l to r: Tanner Pinkal, Rita Schlageter, Mary O’Neil, Margaret Beitel and Cecilia Pinkal at Ocean Shores

I think the point I am trying to make is: Even if you do not consider yourself and Ace Birder, your ‘third eye’ is going to be a valuable contribution to the group effort. Beginner, Tag Along or Master Birder – it’s calling attention to that brief flick of motion that creates a scientific record dating back 120 years now. I’ll miss the compilation party this year but hope to make up for it in years to come.

Beautiful Moments on the Prairie: Renewed Life from Seeds.  Post and Photos by Meredith Rafferty

Meredith is a photographer who marvels at the world around us, night and day. Her happiest moments are connecting with nature and capturing special moments to share with others. She volunteers with the Center for Natural Lands Management and the Nisqually Land Trust, and is past President of the Olympia Camera Club. She delights in the wonders of the Pacific Northwest, from prairies to mountains, rivers to Puget Sound, morning sunrises to magical night skies. You are welcome to explore with her on Instagram.com/ImageConnections.

Beautiful Moments on the Prairie: Renewed Life from Seeds

Volunteering on the South Puget Sound Prairies is always an adventure. I’ve enjoyed every outing for its discovery and learning. I started with Scotch broom pulling, a straight-forward task, and discovered a larger world of complex prairie restoration.

While out on the prairie, I was of course first attracted to the blooming wildflowers. But there was much, much more to the story of the prairies. My next discovery came inside at the “volunteer house” at Glacial Heritage. Walking in, I found volunteers seated at tables, very engrossed, heads down, with bright lights focused on small piles of debris in front of them. I heard murmurs of “doe-hee” which I thought might be a common name for a plant liked by deer. And “viper” brought up images of a snakelike shape. On the tables were small manila envelopes marked with “SCS” (hmmm, was that Second Class Sorting?}.

The volunteers emptied the contents into round brass tins with screening across the bottoms. They shook the tins and then I could see the seeds falling through, leaving behind much of the bits of leaves, seed pods and such. Many of the seeds were tiny. Placed on a white plate to heighten their visibility, they were further separated from the chaff using hand tools into small piles of very clean, single seeds.

Volunteer Don Guyot, whose hands you see in these photos, was one of the best at the intricate work of coaxing small seeds away from the plant debris. This hand work is reserved for small amounts of collected seed. Larger amounts from the seed farm are processed mechanically as much as possible. Sometimes the seed pods needed to be broken apart to release the seed. In the left photo, Don used a hunk of board to grind the pods and encourage the seed to fall through the tin’s screen. Photos by Meredith Rafferty

It turned out that “doe-hee” was actually the acronym DOHE which stood for the early Spring wildflower, Dodecatheon hendersonii. And VIPR stood for the yellow-flowered Viola praemorsa. Their seeds had been collected on the prairies at SCS which was the property, Scatter Creek South. Indeed, wildflower seeds are collected at a dozen different conservation sites across the South Puget Sound prairies and the manila envelopes were marked with their locations. The four-letter plant acronyms have now expanded to six letters. Acronyms are formed from the plant’s Latin name, using the first three letters of each part of the name. Accurate identification and labeling are critical to maintaining the genetics, inventory, and production of hundreds of different native plants.

Dodecatheon hendersonii is the unique Shooting Star of Springtime. It presents a photography challenge to get down at eye level to capture its downward pointed shape. The seed pods will form as shown in the right photo (hey, there’s a surprise occupant in the bottom seedpod!) The ripe seeds usually shake right out but are tiny and must be carefully contained. Photos by Meredith Rafferty

The fuzzy leaves of Viola praemorsa become apparent when viewed closely. The yellow flower will yield a seedpod to be picked when it is ripe. Photos by Meredith Rafferty

In those earlier days of my first visit, much of the wildflower seed collected from the areas were cleaned by hand. Volunteer Gail Trotter still regularly contributes her experience to help out. But now CNLM staff member Forrest Edelman applies mechanized tools along with hand labor, to produce piles of clean, single seeds. He cleans not only the wild-collected seed but also the quantities produced by the Violet Prairie Seed Farm in the Tenino area.

Forrest Edelman readies a collection of Sericocarpus rigidis, also known as Aster curtus. It is a challenge to separate the seed from its fluffy part (I’m sure there’s a technical name for the fluff). Mechanical extraction works. Other seeds require other machinery. Photos by Meredith Rafferty

Seriocarpus rigidus seedhead, Poto by Meredith Rafferty

Ultimately, all this preparation of the seeds brings us to the next critical phase of restoration: planting which includes its site preparation. Some types of seeds will be sown directly at their conservation or farm sites; others will be planted in “plugs” in a nursery setting and later transplanted.

Starting seeds in “plugs” enables closer management of their growing conditions and easier transporting to their final destinations. Photos by Meredith Rafferty

Pictured are the seed cleaning and nursery operations at CNLM’s Shotwell’s Landing site. Spring brings a burst of life in its beds beside the Black River. Photo by Meredith Rafferty

The moment of truth will be when the plants start popping up, reaching for the sun, on their way to be part of the prairie ecosystem. But there is more to the journey before planting. Indeed, in the next blog, let’s go to the wildflower seed collection. It turned out to be an interesting and far-ranging process.